1. Assertives (or Representatives)
* Function: To represent the speaker's belief about the world.
* Examples:
* "The sun is shining." (Stating a fact)
* "I think it's going to rain." (Expressing an opinion)
* "The Earth is flat." (Making a false statement)
2. Directives
* Function: To get the listener to do something.
* Examples:
* "Close the door." (Giving a command)
* "Could you pass the salt, please?" (Making a request)
* "Let's go to the park." (Making a suggestion)
3. Commissives
* Function: To commit the speaker to a future action.
* Examples:
* "I promise to help you." (Making a promise)
* "I will be there at 7 pm." (Making an offer)
* "I will finish the report by tomorrow." (Making a commitment)
4. Expressives
* Function: To express the speaker's feelings or emotions.
* Examples:
* "Congratulations!" (Expressing happiness)
* "I'm sorry." (Expressing apology)
* "I'm so happy to see you." (Expressing joy)
5. Declarations
* Function: To change the state of affairs in the world.
* Examples:
* "I now pronounce you husband and wife." (Performing a marriage ceremony)
* "You're fired!" (Dismissing someone from a job)
* "I quit!" (Resigning from a job)
Other Functions:
* Phatic: To maintain social contact ("How are you?" "Nice day, isn't it?")
* Poetic: To create aesthetic effects ("The rain falls softly, like tears.")
* Metalinguistic: To talk about language itself ("What does 'ubiquitous' mean?")
Important Considerations:
* Context: The function of an utterance depends heavily on the context in which it is used.
* Intention: The speaker's intended meaning is crucial for understanding the function of their utterance.
* Interpretation: The listener's interpretation of the utterance plays a role in determining its function.
By understanding the different functions of utterance, we can better appreciate the complexity and versatility of language. We can also learn to communicate more effectively by choosing the appropriate function for our intended message.