1. Word Meaning:
* Homonyms: Words that sound the same but have different meanings. For example, "bear" (the animal) and "bear" (to endure).
* Synonyms: Words with similar meanings, like "happy" and "joyful."
* Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings, such as "hot" and "cold."
* Polysemy: A word with multiple related meanings, like "bright" (shining) and "bright" (intelligent).
2. Sentence Meaning:
* Ambiguity: A sentence with multiple possible interpretations. For instance, "Visiting relatives can be boring" could mean either that relatives are boring or that the act of visiting them is boring.
* Implicature: Meaning that is implied but not explicitly stated. For example, "I'm going to the store. Do you want anything?" implies that the speaker will buy something for the listener if they express a desire.
* Figurative Language: Metaphors, similes, and idioms add layers of meaning. "He's a walking encyclopedia" uses a metaphor to convey someone's vast knowledge.
3. Contextual Meaning:
* Pragmatics: How context influences meaning. Saying "It's cold in here" could be a request to close a window or a simple observation, depending on the situation.
* Cultural Differences: The same words or phrases can have different meanings in different cultures. For instance, "OK" can be understood as agreement in some cultures but as skepticism or disapproval in others.
4. Philosophical Semantics:
* Truth Conditions: How the truth or falsity of a statement is determined. "The cat is on the mat" is true if and only if a cat is actually on a mat.
* Reference: The relationship between a word or phrase and the object or concept it refers to. "The Eiffel Tower" refers to a specific structure in Paris.
* Meaning and Denotation: The literal meaning of a word or phrase compared to its broader connotations. "Dog" denotes a canine animal, but it can also connote loyalty, companionship, or even aggression depending on context.
Examples in Action:
* "The bank is closed." This sentence is ambiguous. It could mean the financial institution is closed or the edge of a river is closed.
* "Can you pass the salt?" This is a polite request that uses implicature. The speaker isn't really asking if the listener *can* pass the salt but rather asking them to do it.
* "He's a tiger on the field." This uses a metaphor to describe an athlete's aggressive and powerful performance.
These examples demonstrate how semantics helps us understand the meaning behind words, sentences, and entire texts.