1. Place of Articulation:
* Where in the mouth is the air stream constricted?
* Bilabial: Lips together (e.g., /p/, /b/, /m/)
* Labiodental: Lower lip against upper teeth (e.g., /f/, /v/)
* Dental: Tongue against upper teeth (e.g., /θ/, /ð/)
* Alveolar: Tongue against alveolar ridge (e.g., /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, /r/)
* Post-alveolar: Tongue behind alveolar ridge (e.g., /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/)
* Palatal: Tongue against hard palate (e.g., /j/)
* Velar: Tongue against soft palate (e.g., /k/, /g/, /ŋ/)
* Glottal: Air stream constricted at the glottis (e.g., /h/)
2. Manner of Articulation:
* How is the air stream constricted?
* Stop: Complete closure of the vocal tract, then a sudden release (e.g., /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/)
* Fricative: Narrow constriction, creating friction (e.g., /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/)
* Affricate: Stop followed immediately by a fricative (e.g., /tʃ/, /dʒ/)
* Nasal: Air escapes through the nose (e.g., /m/, /n/, /ŋ/)
* Liquid: Partial closure with less friction than a fricative (e.g., /l/, /r/)
* Approximant: Close but not complete closure (e.g., /j/, /w/)
3. Voicing:
* Are the vocal cords vibrating?
* Voiced: Vocal cords vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /m/, /n/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/)
* Voiceless: Vocal cords are not vibrating (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /h/)
Examples:
* /p/ and /b/: Both are bilabial stops, but /p/ is voiceless and /b/ is voiced.
* /s/ and /ʃ/: Both are fricatives, but /s/ is alveolar and /ʃ/ is post-alveolar.
* /m/ and /n/: Both are nasals, but /m/ is bilabial and /n/ is alveolar.
Important Notes:
* Some sounds can be produced in more than one way (e.g., /r/ can be alveolar or postalveolar).
* The distinctions between sounds are not always clear-cut, especially in different languages.
* This is a simplified explanation, and there are many more subtleties to consonant sounds.
By understanding these categories, you can start to analyze and understand the differences between consonant sounds.