Structure and Organization:
* Phonology: All languages have a system of sounds (phonemes) and rules for combining them (phonotactics).
* Morphology: All languages use morphemes (meaningful units) to build words, though the complexity of this process varies widely.
* Syntax: All languages have rules for combining words into sentences, although the specific rules and word order can differ significantly.
* Semantics: All languages have systems of meaning, and they use words to represent objects, actions, and concepts.
* Pragmatics: All languages have rules for using language appropriately in different social contexts.
Cognitive Features:
* Recursion: Languages allow for the creation of infinite sentences by embedding clauses within clauses.
* Displacement: Languages allow us to talk about things that are not present in the immediate environment, including the past, future, and hypothetical situations.
* Creativity: Humans can generate novel utterances and understand new sentences they have never heard before.
* Symbolism: Languages use symbols (words, sounds, gestures) to represent concepts.
Social Features:
* Socialization: Languages are learned through social interaction, and they are used to build and maintain social relationships.
* Culture: Languages are deeply embedded in culture, and they reflect the values, beliefs, and experiences of a community.
* Evolution: Languages constantly evolve and change over time, reflecting changes in society, technology, and cultural influences.
Beyond Universals:
It's important to note that while these properties are widely observed, there are exceptions and variations. Some languages might have unique features or structures not found in others. Additionally, researchers are constantly discovering new insights about the nature of language and its universality.
Furthermore, the study of linguistic universals is still ongoing, and there are ongoing debates about the precise nature and extent of these properties. Some argue that certain universals are more fundamental than others, while others believe that language is more flexible and diverse than previously thought.
In conclusion, while language is diverse, it also shares certain fundamental properties across cultures. Understanding these universals helps us appreciate the complexity of human communication and the remarkable ability of language to adapt and evolve.