1. Doctrine, Theory, or System: This is the most common meaning. It indicates a set of beliefs, principles, or practices that form a distinct system.
* Examples: Capitalism, Communism, Buddhism, Feminism, Darwinism
2. Characteristic, Quality, or State: It can also describe a characteristic or quality of something or someone.
* Examples: Heroism, Optimism, Patriotism, Sadism
3. Practice or Action: It can sometimes refer to a specific practice or action associated with a particular doctrine or belief.
* Examples: Baptism, Realism (in art)
4. Style or Manner: It can also refer to a particular style or manner of doing something.
* Examples: Impressionism, Cubism
5. "Like" or "Characteristic Of": In some cases, "-ism" can be used to indicate something that is "like" or "characteristic of" a particular thing or person.
* Examples: Chauvinism (like a chauvinist), Machiavellianism (characteristic of Machiavelli)
Overall, the meaning of "-ism" is often nuanced and depends on the specific word it's attached to.