1. Language as a System of Signs:
* Sign: Saussure argued that language is made up of signs, which are composed of two inseparable parts:
* Signifier: The physical form of the sign (e.g., the word "tree" or the sound /triː/).
* Signified: The concept or mental image that the signifier represents (e.g., the idea of a tree).
* Arbitrary Nature: The relationship between the signifier and signified is arbitrary. There is no inherent reason why the word "tree" should represent the concept of a tree. This is in contrast to iconic signs, where the signifier resembles the signified (e.g., a picture of a tree).
* Linearity: Language is linear, meaning that signs are arranged in a sequence. This linear structure is crucial for understanding the meaning of a sentence.
2. Langue and Parole:
* Langue: The abstract system of language, shared by all speakers of a language. It encompasses the rules of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. This is the "objective" or "collective" aspect of language.
* Parole: The individual act of speaking or writing. It is the concrete realization of langue in a specific situation. It is the "subjective" or "individual" aspect of language.
3. Synchronic vs. Diachronic:
* Synchronic: The study of language at a specific point in time. It focuses on the structure and organization of language at a given moment.
* Diachronic: The study of language change over time. It explores how language has evolved and the factors that have contributed to its development.
4. Value and Difference:
* Value: The meaning of a sign is determined by its relationship to other signs within the system. The meaning of "tree" is not inherent but depends on its relationship to other words like "plant," "branch," and "leaf."
* Difference: Signs acquire their meaning through their difference from other signs. For example, "tree" is distinguished from "bush" by its size and shape.
Saussure's Legacy:
Saussure's ideas have had a profound impact on linguistics and other fields such as anthropology, literary criticism, and philosophy. His emphasis on the systematicity of language, the importance of signs, and the distinction between langue and parole has shaped the way we think about language and its role in human communication.
It's important to note that Saussure's theories have also been subject to criticism and revision. However, his work remains essential for understanding the fundamental principles of language structure and function.