1. Sound Systems:
* Phonemes: All languages use a limited set of sounds (phonemes) that are meaningful units of speech. Though the specific sounds vary across languages, the principle of using phonemes is universal.
* Phonetics and Phonology: Languages have rules governing how sounds are produced and combined (phonetics), and how these sounds function to distinguish meaning (phonology).
2. Grammar:
* Morphology: All languages have ways to change words to indicate grammatical relations (e.g., adding suffixes, changing word order).
* Syntax: All languages have rules that govern how words are ordered in sentences to convey meaning.
* Word Classes: Languages categorize words into groups like nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.
* Agreement: Many languages have grammatical agreement between words in a sentence (e.g., subject-verb agreement).
3. Semantics:
* Meaning: All languages have words that represent concepts and ideas.
* Lexicon: Every language has a vocabulary (lexicon) that grows and changes over time.
* Compositionality: The meaning of sentences can be derived from the meaning of their constituent words.
4. Pragmatics:
* Context: Meaning is often determined by the context in which a word or phrase is used.
* Social and Cultural Significance: Language is influenced by the social and cultural environment in which it is spoken.
5. Evolutionary Nature:
* Change Over Time: All languages are constantly evolving, adding new words, modifying grammatical structures, and losing old features.
6. Universal Grammar:
* Innate Language Faculty: Some linguists argue that humans are born with an innate capacity for language (Universal Grammar) that helps us acquire language easily.
While these are common characteristics, it's important to remember that there is significant variation among languages. Some languages have very complex grammars, while others are simpler. Some languages have very large vocabularies, while others are more limited. However, despite these differences, all spoken languages share these fundamental principles.