1. Proto-Indo-European (PIE):
- This is the hypothetical ancestor of most European languages, including English.
- It was spoken around 4500-2500 BCE in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe region of Eastern Europe.
- While PIE itself is not recorded, we can reconstruct its vocabulary and grammar by comparing its descendants.
2. Proto-Germanic:
- A branch of PIE that emerged around 500 BCE, spoken by people who migrated to Northern Europe.
- It contributed many basic words and grammatical structures to English, including words like "father," "mother," and "brother."
3. Old English (Anglo-Saxon):
- This is the earliest form of English, spoken by Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) who invaded and settled Britain in the 5th century CE.
- It drew heavily on Proto-Germanic vocabulary and grammar.
- Notable examples include "bread," "house," and "stone."
- Old English literature includes the epic poem "Beowulf."
4. Old Norse:
- In the 9th-11th centuries, Vikings from Scandinavia raided and settled parts of Britain.
- They introduced words like "skull," "knife," and "berserk."
- Their influence also affected grammar, particularly pronouns.
5. Norman French:
- The Norman Conquest of 1066 had a profound impact on the English language.
- Norman French, a Romance language, became the language of the ruling class.
- This led to a massive influx of French words into English, including "government," "justice," and "religion."
6. Middle English:
- This period (1150-1500) saw the emergence of a new English language, influenced by Norman French and Old English.
- Grammar became simplified, and words were borrowed from both languages.
- Famous works like Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" were written in Middle English.
7. Early Modern English:
- This period (1500-1800) saw a standardization of the language, thanks to the printing press and increased literacy.
- Shakespeare's plays were written in Early Modern English.
8. Modern English:
- Starting in the 18th century, English has continued to evolve through contact with other languages and new technologies.
- It continues to be influenced by globalization, scientific discovery, and the internet.
In summary:
English is a complex mix of languages, with its roots in Proto-Indo-European, evolving through Proto-Germanic, Old English, Old Norse, Norman French, and further influenced by the printing press and global interconnectedness. Its history is a testament to the dynamic nature of language and the power of cultural exchange.