When:
* 8th-11th Centuries: This period saw extensive Viking raids and settlements in England. The Vikings established themselves in parts of England, particularly in the north and east, and interacted with the Anglo-Saxon population.
* 1066: The Norman Conquest, led by William the Conqueror, further impacted English, but the influence of Old Norse had already been established by this time.
How:
* Vocabulary: Old Norse contributed a substantial number of words to English, including:
* Everyday words: *skull*, *knife*, *leg*, *skirt*, *anger*, *husband*, *berserk*, *skull*, *knife*, *leg*, *skirt*, *anger*, *husband*, *berserk*
* Words related to navigation and warfare: *fjord*, *ship*, *skull*, *knife*, *leg*, *skirt*, *anger*, *husband*, *berserk*
* Words related to law and government: *law*, *skull*, *knife*, *leg*, *skirt*, *anger*, *husband*, *berserk*
* Grammar: Old Norse influenced the development of English grammar, introducing new pronouns and verb forms. For example, the use of "they" for both singular and plural forms of "he" and "she" likely came from Old Norse.
* Pronounciation: The sound system of English changed slightly due to Old Norse influence. For example, the "th" sound in "think" is believed to have originated from Old Norse.
* Regional Dialects: Old Norse had a significant impact on the development of regional dialects in England, particularly in the north and east.
Examples of Old Norse Influence in English:
* "They" for both singular and plural: In Old Norse, "þeir" was used for both singular and plural. This influenced the use of "they" in English for the same purpose.
* "Give" instead of "giveth": The Old Norse "gefa" influenced the development of the modern English "give," replacing the older "giveth."
* "Call" instead of "cleopian": The Old Norse "kalla" influenced the development of the modern English "call," replacing the older "cleopian."
Overall Impact:
The influence of Old Norse on the English language was significant and long-lasting. It enriched the vocabulary, shaped the grammar, and contributed to the development of regional dialects. While Old Norse is no longer spoken, its influence can still be seen in the English language today.