Factors influencing Chinese responses:
* Time Period: China's attitude towards foreigners changed significantly over centuries.
* Ancient and Medieval Periods: The Silk Road saw trade with many cultures, but China often considered itself the "Middle Kingdom" with a superior civilization. Interactions were regulated, with foreigners often confined to specific areas and required to follow Chinese customs.
* Ming and Qing Dynasties: Increasingly isolated, China became wary of foreign influence and implemented strict control over contact. This led to periods of isolation and suspicion.
* 19th and 20th Centuries: Western imperialism forced China to open its doors, leading to trade agreements, unequal treaties, and ultimately, the Opium Wars. This period was marked by conflict, resistance, and internal reform movements.
* Modern Era: Since the 20th century, China has adopted a more open approach, actively engaging with the world in trade, diplomacy, and cultural exchange.
* Specific Foreigners: Chinese reactions differed depending on who was making contact:
* Merchants and Traders: Historically, trade was welcomed, but under strict rules and regulations.
* Diplomats: Their reception was highly influenced by political circumstances and the nature of their requests.
* Missionaries: Their efforts to proselytize were met with resistance and sometimes persecution.
* Military: Any military incursion or attempt at conquest was met with fierce opposition and often resulted in conflict.
Common Chinese responses:
* Containment and Control: Historically, China often aimed to regulate and contain foreign influence within its borders, limiting their access and activities.
* Diplomacy and Tribute Systems: China engaged in diplomatic relations with neighboring states and used tribute systems as a way to control interactions and assert its dominance.
* Cultural Exchange: Trade, diplomatic missions, and cultural exchanges led to the transmission of ideas, technologies, and artistic practices, although this was often carefully monitored.
* Resistance and Conflict: When faced with foreign aggression or attempts to impose their will, China often resisted fiercely, leading to wars, rebellions, and anti-imperialist movements.
It's crucial to avoid generalizations: China's history is complex, and its response to foreign contact has never been uniform or monolithic. Understanding the specific historical context and the individuals involved is key to understanding China's interactions with the world.