1. Pronunciation:
* Great Vowel Shift: This major sound change affected the pronunciation of all long vowels, leading to shifts in their sounds. For example, the vowel in "name" (Old English "nama") shifted from /a:/ to /ei/.
* Loss of inflections: Old English had a complex system of grammatical inflections, which were endings added to words to indicate their grammatical function. These inflections largely disappeared in Modern English, leading to a more simplified grammar.
2. Vocabulary:
* Influx of French words: The Norman Conquest of 1066 introduced a large number of French words into the English language, particularly in the areas of government, law, and aristocracy.
* Latin influence: English also borrowed heavily from Latin, particularly in academic and scientific fields.
3. Grammar:
* Simplified word order: Old English had a more flexible word order than Modern English, with the verb often appearing in different positions. Modern English has a more fixed subject-verb-object word order.
* Loss of grammatical genders: Old English had three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), while Modern English has none.
4. Spelling:
* Standardization of spelling: Old English spelling was more fluid and varied, but over time, the spelling system became more standardized, based on the Latin alphabet.
* Introduction of new letters: The English alphabet was expanded to include letters like 'j' and 'u', which were not present in Old English.
5. Syntax:
* Changes in sentence structure: Old English sentence structure was more complex and often featured more clauses than modern English. Modern English sentences tend to be shorter and simpler.
* Development of prepositions and conjunctions: The use of prepositions and conjunctions became more prevalent in Modern English, helping to clarify relationships between words and phrases.
6. Influence of other languages:
* Scandinavian influence: The Vikings, who invaded England in the 9th and 10th centuries, also contributed words and grammatical features to the English language.
The changes from Old English to Modern English were a complex and multifaceted process, driven by various factors, including linguistic evolution, political events, and cultural contact. It's important to note that these changes were not all sudden or abrupt, but rather a gradual development over centuries.
While the transition is often portrayed as a clear break between two distinct languages, it's more accurate to view it as a continuous process of evolution, where Old English gradually transformed into Modern English.