1. Navigation and Astronomy: Arabs made significant advancements in navigation and astronomy, which greatly impacted European exploration and trade. They developed sophisticated tools like the astrolabe, which allowed sailors to determine their latitude and navigate more accurately. They also contributed to the development of maps and cartography, which helped Europeans chart their voyages and understand the world better.
2. Algebra and Mathematics: Arab mathematicians made crucial contributions to the development of algebra, introducing concepts like the use of variables and solving equations. They also preserved and advanced the works of Greek mathematicians like Euclid, which paved the way for the development of modern mathematics in Europe. This knowledge transfer was facilitated by translations of Arabic texts into Latin, making these mathematical concepts accessible to European scholars.