1. Phonology (Sound System)
* Phonetic Inventory: The set of sounds a language uses. For example, English has a /θ/ sound (think "thin"), while Spanish doesn't.
* Phonotactics: The rules governing how sounds can be combined in a language. For example, English allows consonant clusters like "str" at the beginning of words, while Japanese does not.
* Stress Patterns: How emphasis is placed on syllables in a word. English has stress-timed rhythm, while French has syllable-timed rhythm.
* Tones: Some languages use tones (changes in pitch) to distinguish words. Mandarin Chinese, for example, has four tones.
2. Morphology (Word Formation)
* Morphemes: The smallest meaningful units in a language. English uses prefixes and suffixes (e.g., "un-", "-ing") to change word meaning. Other languages might use internal changes or tone.
* Word Order: The arrangement of words in a sentence. English is an SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) language, while Japanese is SOV.
3. Syntax (Sentence Structure)
* Grammatical Rules: The rules that govern how words are combined into phrases and sentences. Languages vary greatly in their rules for agreement, tense, and case marking.
* Word Classes: The categories into which words are classified (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives). Languages may have different classes or use them in different ways.
4. Lexicon (Vocabulary)
* Core Vocabulary: Basic words common to many languages (e.g., "sun," "water," "eat").
* Specialized Vocabulary: Words related to specific fields or activities. For example, medical terminology differs greatly between languages.
* Etymology: The origin and historical development of words. This can influence pronunciation and meaning.
5. Semantics (Meaning)
* Concepts: How languages conceptualize and categorize the world. For example, English has separate words for "snow" and "ice," while some languages have one word for both.
* Figurative Language: The use of metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech. These can vary significantly across languages.
6. Pragmatics (Use in Context)
* Politeness Markers: How languages express respect and formality.
* Conversational Styles: The typical patterns of interaction in a language.
7. Writing System
* Alphabet: Some languages use an alphabet, while others use syllabaries, logograms, or combinations.
* Orthography: The rules for writing words in a particular language.
Beyond these core features, language can also be differentiated by:
* Geographical Location: Languages spoken in geographically close areas often share similarities due to historical interactions.
* Cultural Influences: Languages reflect the culture and history of their speakers.
* Social Factors: Language varieties (dialects, registers) can emerge due to factors like class, age, or region.
It's important to remember that no two languages are exactly alike. Even languages considered "closely related" often have significant differences in their structure and use.