Phonology (Sound System):
* Vowel Sounds: Old English had a more complex system of vowel sounds than modern English. It had long and short vowels, diphthongs, and a greater variety of vowel sounds.
* Consonant Sounds: Old English had sounds that are not present in modern English, such as the "hw" sound, as in "hwat" (what), and the "ð" sound, as in "þæt" (that).
* Stress: Old English stress was placed on the first syllable of a word, unlike modern English, where stress can be placed on different syllables depending on the word's function.
Grammar:
* Case System: Old English had a complex system of grammatical cases for nouns, adjectives, and pronouns, indicating their grammatical function in a sentence. This system has largely disappeared in modern English, with only remnants found in pronouns (e.g., I/me, he/him).
* Gender System: Old English nouns had grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), which affected the form of adjectives and other words used with them. Modern English has lost this system.
* Word Order: While Old English was generally SVO (Subject-Verb-Object), it was more flexible than modern English. Word order was often used to indicate grammatical function, allowing for inversions and other variations.
* Verbs: Old English verbs had a more complex system of conjugations and tenses than modern English. They had strong verbs with irregular past tense forms and weak verbs with regular past tense forms.
Vocabulary:
* Germanic Roots: Old English vocabulary is heavily rooted in Germanic languages, with many words derived from Proto-Germanic.
* Latin Influence: While less prominent than in later periods, Old English vocabulary started to incorporate some Latin words through contact with Roman culture and Christianity.
* Compounding: Old English frequently used compounding to create new words, combining two or more words into a single unit.
Writing System:
* Runic Script: In the early period, Old English was written using the runic alphabet.
* Latin Alphabet: Later, the Latin alphabet was adopted, with additions of special characters to represent sounds not found in Latin.
Examples:
* "Hwat" (What) - Modern English "what"
* "Þæt" (That) - Modern English "that"
* "Se mann" (The man) - Modern English "The man"
* "He læt hine" (He lets him) - Modern English "He lets him"
Overall, Old English was a language with a distinct sound system, complex grammar, and a vocabulary heavily influenced by Germanic languages. While much of its grammar and phonology have changed significantly, its influence is still evident in modern English, both in vocabulary and the underlying structure of the language.