1. Langue vs. Parole (Ferdinand de Saussure)
* Langue: The abstract, underlying system of language, including its grammar, vocabulary, and rules. It's shared by all speakers of a language.
* Parole: The concrete, individual utterances of language. It's the specific way an individual uses the language system.
2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic (Ferdinand de Saussure)
* Synchronic: Studying language at a specific point in time. Focuses on how language functions in the present.
* Diachronic: Studying language over time. Focuses on how language has changed and evolved.
3. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
* Descriptive: Describing language as it is used by its speakers, without judgment.
* Prescriptive: Attempting to impose rules on language, often based on traditional or historical usage. This approach may be seen as judgmental.
4. Competence vs. Performance (Noam Chomsky)
* Competence: The internalized knowledge of language that a speaker possesses. This is the ideal, perfect understanding of the language system.
* Performance: The actual use of language in real-world situations. This can be influenced by factors like fatigue, distractions, or the speaker's individual style.
5. Formal vs. Functional
* Formal: Focuses on the formal structures and systems of language, often using mathematical and logical approaches.
* Functional: Focuses on the communicative functions of language and how it is used in social contexts.
6. Phonetics vs. Phonology
* Phonetics: The study of the physical sounds of language, including their production and perception.
* Phonology: The study of how sounds are organized and used in a language, including the rules of sound combination.
7. Semantics vs. Pragmatics
* Semantics: The study of meaning in language, focusing on the relationships between words and concepts.
* Pragmatics: The study of language use in context, including how meaning is influenced by factors like speaker intent, social situation, and cultural norms.
These dichotomies are important for understanding the different approaches and perspectives within linguistics. They are not always mutually exclusive, and there is often overlap and interaction between them.